Participation methods are explained and discussed in relation to the specific application context, e.g.:

To address the problem of method selection, it’s important to have a list of guide questions (Bernes et al., 1997):

  1. whose participation is being sought? e.g., all citizens, or all consumers, or certain groups of citizens or consumers
  2. what type of knowledge is being accessed? e.g., expert, interested, informed, uninformed; factual, value-based
  3. what is the source of action to secure participation? e.g., political systems, service systems, organized groups of citizens
  4. what is the purpose of participation? e.g., empower citizens, improve services, increase accountability, transform views through discussion, satisfy statutory requirements
  5. what degree of power-sharing is implied? e.g., offer advice on options, option generation, take decisions
  6. at what level will views be expressed? e.g., individual, collective
  7. at what level will change deriving from participation occur? e.g., individual, group, neighborhood, social program, organization

Range of methods is presented including their category (traditional, innovative consultative, innovative deliberative), description and use, advantages, disadvantages, the aims which might be met by their use.

The methods are classified based on the “four levels of participation” to indicate degree of involvement (Leach & Wingfield, 1999; Petts & Leach, 2000):

Level 1. Education and information provision Level 2. Information and feedback Level 3. Involvement and consultation Level 4. Extended involvement

Level 1. Education and information provision

Method/Technique Category Description Advantages Disadvantages Aims to be (partially met)
Leaflets/ Brochures Traditional Written material used to convey information. Care should be taken in establishing the boundaries of distribution. Can potentially reach a wide audience or be targeted towards particular groups. Information may not be readily understood and may be misinterpreted. May be treated as junk mail. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Newsletters Traditional Written material used to convey
Information that may involve a series of publications. Care should be taken in establishing the boundaries of distribution. Ongoing contact, information can be updated. A flexible form of publicity that can be designed to address the changing needs of the audience. Useful to support liaison groups. Potential for feedback. Not everyone will actually read a newsletter. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Unstaffed Exhibits/Displays Traditional Exhibits or displays set up in public areas to convey information. People can view the displays at a convenient time and at their leisure.
Graphic representations, if used, can help people visualize proposals. Information may not be fully understood or may be misinterpreted. No staff available to respond to questions or receive comments. Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Advertising Traditional Advertisement placed to announce proposals, arrangements for meetings and other activities. Depending on the circulation of the publication, the advert could potentially reach a large audience. The information will only reach those who read the publication in which the advert is placed. Only limited information can be provided. Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Local newspapers Traditional An article published in a local newspaper to convey information about a proposed activity. A potentially cheap form of publicity and means of reaching a local audience. Circulation may be limited. There may be problems associated with limited editorial control and misrepresentation of information. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency
National newspapers Traditional An article published in a national newspaper to convey information about a proposed activity. Potential to reach a very large audience. Unless an activity has gained a national profile, it may be of limited interest to the national press and a national audience. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Video Innovative consultative (now becoming traditional) Production of a video to convey information, may incorporate computer graphics and other images. Under the control of the producer. Can be watched at the viewer’s convenience. Can be watched at the viewer’s convenience. Can be perceived as biased propaganda. Relatively expensive to produce if the final product is going to look professional and credible. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Site Visits Traditional Organized case studies through site orientated meetings to provide firsthand experience of a particular activity and the issues involved Issues brought to life through real examples. Often difficult to identify a site which replicates all issues under consideration. Not suitable for large groups of people. Satisfy statutory requirements Change people’s views
Increase transparency

Level 2. Information and feedback

Method/Technique Category Description Advantages Disadvantages Aims to be (partially met)
Staffed Exhibits/Displays Traditional Exhibits or displays set up in public areas to convey information and staffed by specialists who can provide information, answer questions and receive comments People can view the displays at a convenient time and at their leisure. Graphic representations, if used, can help people visualize proposals. One to one contact can be achieved. Particular groups can be targeted e.g., residents directly affected. Requires a major commitment of staff time. May attract a small proportion of third parties. Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Staffed telephone lines Traditional A telephone number for people to call to obtain information, ask questions or make comments about proposals or issues. A convenient way of receiving comments from interested parties. Not intimidating, therefore, easier for people to participate and provide comments. Promotes a feeling of accessibility. Discussions over the telephone may not be as good as face-to-face. Operating staff may not have technical knowledge available to respond to questions Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Internet Innovative consultative A web-site on the Internet used to provide information or invite feedback. Care should be taken to keep the information up to date. The audience is potentially global. Costs are reduced as no printing or postage costs are incurred. A convenient method of participation for those with Internet access. Not all interested parties will have access to the Internet, therefore, alternative means of information dissemination will also be required. Less appropriate where issues are local Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Teleconferencing Innovative consultative Digital cameras attached to computers enable geographically distant individuals to ask questions face-to-face. Enable people who find it difficult to travel to discuss issues face-to-face with officials or politicians. Must find places to install the cameras in the community and allocate staff to operate them. Can be expensive. Limits to numbers who can participate Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Public Meetings Traditional A formal gathering of interested and affected parties to present and exchange information and views on a proposal. If run well, can provide a useful way of meeting other stakeholders. Demonstrates that the proponent is willing to meet with other interested parties. Whilst appearing simple, can be one of most complex and unpredictable methods. Public meetings can be intimidating and may be hijacked by interest groups or vocal individuals. May result in no consultation only information provision. Satisfy statutory requirements
Change people’s views
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Surveys, Interviews and Questionnaires Traditional Encompasses a range of techniques for obtaining information and opinions. May be self-administered, conducted face-to-face, by post or over the telephone. Can gather information from people who would not attend public meetings or become involved in other activities. Confidential surveys may result in more candid responses. Can identify existing knowledge and concerns. Can have a poor response rate. Responses may not be representative and only reflect opinion at that time. Opinions may change. Designing and administering a good survey/questionnaire can be costly and time consuming. Satisfy statutory requirements
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility
Improve services
Determine needs/desires
Deliberative polls Innovative consultative A form of opinion poll but examines views after people have had an opportunity to consider the issue being discussed. Randomly selected members of the public come together to listen to experts and their own views. Tells decision-makers what people would think if they had the time and information to consider their views carefully. Provides a representation of the considered judgement of the public. Designed mainly as a social research tool Requires commitment by participants. Potentially costly as several hundred people may participate. Determine needs and desires
Increase transparency
Increase defensibility